When the abuse is visible, but the child remains invisible
New research on child sexual abuse in a digital world
In 1990, I prepared a report for the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police on what was then commonly called child pornography. The term was misleading even then. Pornography refers to a sexual representation, whereas images of children documented violations and abuse. The child had not created the material. The child had been turned into material.
At that time, images were copied, sold and sent through the post. Distribution had a physical slowness. A photograph had to be developed, a videotape copied and an envelope delivered to a recipient. The Internet did not create the sexual exploitation of children, but technology has changed its speed, reach and duration. An image can now be distributed to an unknown number of people within seconds. A message can reach a child in their bedroom. A threat can follow the child from platform to platform. What is new, then, is not the violation itself, but the technological infrastructure surrounding it.
A study published in Nature in 2026 makes it possible to quantify parts of this change. Sakshi Ghai and colleagues analysed data from the Disrupting Harm project, a collaboration between UNICEF Innocenti, ECPAT International and INTERPOL. The material consisted of nationally representative samples of 11,912 Internet-using children aged 12 to 17 across twelve countries in eastern and southern Africa and Southeast Asia. The surveys were conducted in 2020 and 2021 and covered experiences during the preceding year.
Around 17 per cent - one in six - reported at least one of nine forms of technology-facilitated child sexual exploitation or abuse. When the researchers adjusted for the proportion of children with Internet access in each country, they estimated that this represented approximately 10.7 million children, with a confidence interval from 9.9 to 11.5 million. This is not a global estimate, nor can the 17 per cent figure be transferred directly to all children in the twelve countries. It applies to the Internet-using 12- to 17-year-olds represented by the surveys.
The category was broad. It included unwanted sexual images and comments, pressure to engage in sexual conversations or acts, requests for images of intimate body parts, the sharing of sexual images without consent, offers of money or gifts, and sexual extortion. These acts are not the same. They can differ greatly in severity, intention and power relations. The broad category makes it possible to see a wider landscape, but it can also make the distinction between unwanted sexual attention, systematic extortion and more serious exploitation less clear.
Even so, the main finding is difficult to ignore. Sexual exploitation through digital technologies is not a marginal phenomenon. It has become part of the world in which children live.
The invisible child
Xiangming Fang and Greta M. Massetti summarise the study in a commentary in Nature: child sexual abuse enabled by digital technologies is widespread and under-reported. At first, this might seem like a contradiction. The digital world stores almost everything. Images, messages, user profiles and electronic traces can be found on phones and servers. The abuse can be visible to the person committing it, to those receiving the material and sometimes to the platform carrying it. Yet the child can remain invisible.
The study found that 51 per cent of the children who had experienced at least one such violation had not told anyone about it. Among those who disclosed, 46 per cent named friends, 26 per cent siblings, 21 per cent their mother and 20 per cent their father. Only 9 per cent told a teacher, and around 3 per cent turned respectively to the police, a helpline or a social worker. Children could name more than one recipient, so these percentages should not be added together.
The most common barrier was not knowing where to go or whom to tell. This was reported in 37.6 per cent of the incidents that children had not disclosed. This was followed by shame, embarrassment or the emotional difficulty of telling, at 19.6 per cent, and the belief that the incident was not serious enough to report, at 14.2 per cent.
The invisibility therefore arises not only because adults lack information. It emerges in the distance between what the child has experienced and what the child dares to tell. Shame works within this distance.
When shame changes hands
For more than four decades, as a child-welfare practitioner, researcher and teacher, I have worked in the field of child sexual abuse. In my doctoral dissertation, I explored the meaning of shame in conversations with people who had experienced sexual abuse. One experience returned repeatedly: shame often settles on the person who was violated, not on the person who committed the violation.
The child might ask: Why did I answer? Why did I send the image? Why did I not stop it? Why did I not tell anyone sooner? Such questions can leave the child feeling partly responsible for a situation that an adult or another perpetrator created and exploited. Technology can intensify this. The child might have pressed a button, written a message or sent an image. The visible action was the child's; control of the situation was not necessarily theirs.
This is a crucial distinction. The body can respond without the child having consented. A child might have taken part in a conversation without understanding where it would lead. They might have sent one image without consenting to its being stored, forwarded or used for extortion. Responsibility cannot be determined simply by recording who pressed the button. We must also ask who understood the situation, who held the power, who applied the pressure, and who exploited the child's trust or vulnerability.
When shame changes hands in this way, silence becomes understandable. The child is not necessarily hiding only what the other person has done. The child is also trying to hide what they now fear the incident says about them. Shame does not merely say: ‘Something bad happened to me.’ It says: ‘There is something wrong with me.’
It is this displacement of shame that must be broken. The body was violated, but it was not made impure. The child was exploited, but is not guilty. Responsibility belongs to the person who committed the violation and to the systems that made it possible - not to the child who was enticed, pressured, threatened or overpowered.
The difficult conversation
We often say that children must learn to speak up. That is true, but insufficient. A child can speak only if there is someone willing to listen. And that person must be able to listen without immediately becoming judgemental, panicked or controlling.
In my work, I have seen how the professional's own unease can become part of the silence. Sexual abuse is difficult to think about and difficult to ask about. Helpers may be afraid of being mistaken, of asking leading questions or of opening something they do not know how to handle. This caution is understandable and sometimes necessary. But it can also leave the child alone with what the adults do not dare to approach.
The difficult conversation therefore requires two forms of care at the same time. We must not pressure the child to tell more than they are ready to tell. But neither should we withdraw because the subject is painful for us. Respecting silence is not the same as abandoning the child within it.
A question can open the conversation without intruding: ‘Has anyone made you do something online that you did not want to do?’ Another might be: ‘Is there anything you are afraid I will be angry with you for?’ Perhaps most important is what must follow: ‘You will not get into trouble for telling me this. It is not your responsibility.’
In this way, the conversation can begin to return the shame to where it belongs.
An old form of abuse in a new infrastructure
Digital technology has given abuse a new infrastructure. It can bring a stranger into the child's private space, make a single moment permanent and turn an image into an instrument of repeated control. But the basic mechanisms are familiar: trust is betrayed, power is concealed, blame is displaced and silence protects the strong more than the vulnerable.
The fear is real wherever the violation takes place. The shame is real. The threat that an image will be shared can be present at the breakfast table, in the classroom and when the child tries to sleep. Digital abuse might lack a shared physical space, but it does not lack bodily, social and existential consequences.
The study found almost identical reported prevalence among boys and girls: 16.9 per cent among boys and 17.0 per cent among girls. This does not mean that the contexts or consequences are necessarily the same. But the finding matters because our assumptions about who can be victimised shape whom we see and whom we ask. If the helper has already decided what an abused child looks like, other children can remain invisible.
Sexual abuse outside the digital sphere has also often remained hidden behind other problems - restlessness, absence from school, substance use, self-harm or conflict at home. Its digital form does not reduce the need for a holistic understanding.
The child cannot carry the burden of safety alone
Children who knew where they could seek help following sexual harassment or assault were more likely to disclose what they had experienced. The same was true for children who experienced a supportive form of parental engagement in their digital lives: adults spoke with them about safe use, helped them when something was difficult, and participated without merely controlling them.
Precision is needed here. This was a cross-sectional study and cannot establish causation. We therefore do not know whether knowledge of sources of help and supportive parental contact made disclosure easier, whether disclosure led to greater knowledge and support, or whether other factors influenced both. The findings show associations that should be investigated further, not certain effects of particular interventions.
Safety is not created by monitoring alone, but through a relationship in which the child knows that they can return even after doing something adults had warned against. The child must be able to say, ‘I sent the image anyway,’ without blame being the first response. Otherwise, the adult's need for control can become another reason for silence.
Nor can responsibility be placed on the family alone. Platforms must be designed with children's safety as their starting point: privacy by default, limits on adults' ability to contact children, detection of exploitative contact patterns, and quick, understandable routes to help. Governments must set requirements, and support services must be visible and accessible before the child needs them.
The data were collected before generative artificial intelligence became widely available. The study can therefore tell us nothing about the prevalence of AI-generated abuse images. The researchers nevertheless point out that generative AI and so-called deepfakes are already being used to create synthetic child sexual abuse material and could increase the scale of harm faster than laws and protection systems can respond.
The instruction ‘Tell an adult’ is meaningless if the child does not know who that adult is, or expects to meet anger, disbelief or shame. Before asking the child to break the silence, we must build a society capable of receiving what is told.
Daring to see
When I worked with child sexual abuse material in 1990, one of the problems was that society preferred to look away. The material was disturbing, the language inadequate and responsibility easily passed to someone else. More than three decades later, the technology is different, but the temptation not to see remains.
The new research makes this blindness harder to maintain. One in six Internet-using 12- to 17-year-olds in the countries studied reported at least one sexual violation facilitated by technology within a single year. Slightly more than half had not told anyone about it. The figures tell us how widespread the problem is within these samples. The silence tells us how little figures alone can reveal.
Yet the systems and platforms that must change are ultimately only the frame around something simpler: a child who needs to be seen and believed. Making the child visible does not mean demanding a complete account. It means creating places where the child can begin, stop and begin again. It means listening without taking over the story and respecting both the child's pace and boundaries. Above all, it means saying clearly what shame has made unclear:
What happened must be taken seriously. You will get help. It was not your responsibility.
References and further reading
Fang, X., & Massetti, G. M. (2026). Child sexual abuse enabled by digital technologies is widespread and under-reported. Nature, 654, 328-330. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-026-01325-x
Ghai, S., Vuorre, M., Kardefelt-Winther, D., Ferguson, A. M., Kurten, S., Livingstone, S., Przybylski, A. K., & Orben, A. (2026). Technology mediation in child sexual exploitation and abuse in Africa and Asia. Nature, 654, 408-418. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-026-10525-4
Pettersen, K. T. (2009). An exploration into the concept and phenomenon of shame within the context of child sexual abuse: An existential-dialogical perspective of social work within the settings of a Norwegian incest centre [Doctoral dissertation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology].